Introduction to C Programming.

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Software to improve building safety in quakes

A Spanish software company is developing a computer tool that will help improve building safety in earthquakes and can also be used in construction projects by companies located in seismic zones.

The new aspect of this software, which is geared toward architects, engineers and construction firms, is that it is capable of calculating the effect that the facades, the partitions and the walls - which have a tendency to develop cracks in a quake - will have on the overall structure of a building.

The Arquitectura, Ingenieria y Construccion CYPE software company, based in the eastern Spanish city of Alicante and operating in more than 47 countries - mainly in Latin America, Portugal and North Africa - has been working on the product for a year, the firm’s technical director, Carlos Fernandez, said in an interview with EFE.
The aim of the software, development of which is almost completed, is to better analyze the structure of a building and its behaviour in the face of different seismic risks, Fernandez said.

This is ‘one more tool that’s going to contribute to improving the safety of ... buildings in seismic zones, but it’s not the definitive weapon, it’s not a panacea,’ he said, adding that the project will have an international market because many professionals around the world will be able to make use of it.

The new computer program is based on the analysis of real architecture and it would be used, at first, to analyze newly-constructed buildings in earthquake zones.

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Google making videogame console and smart watch

Google is working on a videogame console and smart watch powered by Android software that has been a hit in smartphones and tablets, the Wall Street Journal reported Thursday.

The Journal cited unnamed sources as saying that the California-based Internet titan is out to expand its hardware line-up to include a new version of a Nexus Q digital media device introduced last year but never brought to market.

Google has openly shared a vision of its free Android operating software being used to put brains into a broad range of devices, including typically ‘dumb’ machines such as refrigerators or clothes dryers.

Efforts to develop a watch and a game console come as rumors spread of plans for a new-generation Apple TV box, as well as a smart watch, from Google’s Cupertino, California-based rival.

Microsoft and Sony have also set out to tighten their grips on modern-day home entertainment with new generation Xbox One and PlayStation 4 videogame consoles, which are to be released late this year.

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What is a Web Browser?

Browser, short for web browser, is a software application used to enable computers users to locate and access web pages. Browsers translates the basic HTML (Hypertext Mark Up Language) code that allows us to see images, text videos and listen to audios on websites, along with hyperlinks that let us travel to different web pages. The browser gets in contact with the web server and requests for information. The web server receives the information and displays it on the computer.

There are different browsers for various things you do on the internet. There's a text based browser. With a text based browser you are only allowed to see text. Graphical material are not displayed. Hyperlinks are accessed by typing it in through the keyboard. An example of a text based browser is LYNX. There's a graphical browser and that allows the user to see all types of multimedia.

There are several types of browsers but the one thing they have in common is that they carry out the same function; they transfer hypertext. Here are some familiar common web browsers:

• Mozilla FireFox
• Netscape Navigator
• Microsoft Internet Explorer

Every browser features a toolbar that allows you to perform various functions like:

• Go back to the first page you started on the internet which is called Home.
• Book your favorite websites
• Print content you find interesting on web pages
• Check your web history, like the websites you visited in the past
• You can go forward and backwards to see the previous sites you viewed

There are two basic ways that you can navigate through the browser:

• You can click on links on different web pages. Those links will lead you to other web pages.
• If you know the URL or the address of the website you can type it in write in the browser's box all the way at the top. There's no need to type in the: http:// part when inserting the address because the browser automatically places it in. Then you have to click enter.

Once you click enter you have to wait for the page to load. While it's loading you will see the browser icon. Usually a little box will appear at the bottom with bars. It's called a status bar. When all the bars are filled you will know that the page has finished loading.

So every time you click or a link or enter a URL your browser will request the information from the web server. If your browser returns to the page with a error message the address you typed in could be wrong on you may not be connected to the internet.

Web pages can look different in various types of browser. It's always important to download the latest version of your browser. Today most web pages are designed to be viewed in updated browsers. By keeping up with the most up-to-date version of your web browser you will be able to get the best of the web for everything that you need

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Computer

A computer is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a finite set of arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.

Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU) and some form ofmemory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit that can change the order of operations based on stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.

The first electronic digital computers were developed between 1940 and 1945 in the United Kingdom and United States. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).^[1] In this eramechanical analog computers were used for military applications.

Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.^[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by smallbatteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.

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Internet

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support email.

Most traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and television are being reshaped or redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and Internet Protocol Television (IPTV). Newspaper, book and other print publishing are adapting to Web site technology, or are reshaped into blogging and web feeds. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has boomed both for major retail outlets and smallartisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries.

The origins of the Internet reach back to research commissioned by the United States government in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication via computer networks. The funding of a new U.S. backbone by the National Science Foundation in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial backbones, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. The commercialization of what was by the 1990s an international network resulted in its popularization and incorporation into virtually every aspect of modern human life. As of June 2012, more than 2.4 billion people—over a third of the world's human population—have used the services of the Internet.^[1]

The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies. Only the overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space and the Domain Name System, are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise.

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Computer Science Overview

The Field 

The rapid and widespread use of computers and information technology has generated a need for highly trained workers proficient in various job functions. These computer specialists include computer scientists, database administrators, and network systems and data communication analysts. Job tasks and occupational titles used to describe these workers evolve rapidly and continually, reflecting new areas of specialization or changes in technology, as well as the preferences and practices of employers. Computer scientists work as theorists, researchers, or inventors. Their jobs are distinguished by the higher level of theoretical expertise and innovation they apply to complex problems and the creation or application of new technology. The areas of computer science research range 

from complex theory to hardware design to programming-language design. Some researchers work on multidisciplinary projects, such as developing and advancing uses of virtual reality, extending human-computer interaction, or designing robots. They may work on design teams with electrical engineers and other specialists. Computer science researchers employed by academic institutions have job functions that are similar in many ways to those employed by other organizations. In general, researchers in academic settings have more flexibility to focus on pure theory, while those working in other 

organizations usually focus on projects that have the possibility of producing patents and profits. However, some researchers in non-academic settings have considerable latitude in determining the direction of their research. With the Internet and electronic business generating large volumes of data, there is a growing need to be able to store, manage, and extract data effectively. Database administrators work with database management systems software and determine ways to organize and store data. They identify user needs and set up new computer databases. In many cases, database administrators must integrate data from outdated systems into a new system. They also test and coordinate modifications to the system when needed, and troubleshoot problems when they occur.An 

organization’s database administrator ensures the performance of the system, understands the platform on which the database runs, and adds new users to the system. Because many 

databases are connected to the Internet, database administrators also must plan and 

coordinate security measures with network administrators. With the growing volume of 

sensitive data and the increasing interconnectedness of computer networks, data integrity, 

backup systems, and database security have become increasingly important aspects of the job of database administrators. Network systems and data communications analysts, also 

referred to as network architects, design, test, and evaluate systems such as local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), the Internet, intranets, and other data 

communications systems. Systems are configured in many ways and can range from a connection between two offices in the same building to globally distributed networks, voice mail, and e-mail systems of a multinational organization. Network 

systems and data communications analysts perform network modeling, analysis, and planning, often requiring both hardware and software solutions. For example, a network may involve the installation of several pieces of hardware, such as routers and hubs, wireless adapters, and cables, while also requiring the installation and configuration of software, such as network drivers. Analysts also may research related products and make necessary hardware and software.

Preparation

Computer scientists should be creative, inquisitive, analytical, and detail oriented. They must 

have a strong grasp of mathematics, including calculus, probability, and statistics, and 

computer systems. Preparation in one or more of the sciences, such as, physics, chemistry, 

biology, is also a requirement. Abilities to work as part of a team and to communicate well also 

will be important as computer science jobs frequently require interaction with specialists 

outside of computer science or engineering. To hone these skills, recommended coursework 

includes English, writing, social studies, and humanities. 

Entry level positions in the field typically require a four year bachelor-of-science degree in 

computer science, information science, or computer engineering. State-of-the-art high 

technology research and development positions frequently require the M.S. or Ph.D. degree in 

either computer science or computer engineering. Tenure track professorial positions in a 

university require the Ph.D. degree. 

Computer Science vs. Computer Engineering vs. Information Science

Most four year degree programs in computer science and computer engineering are accredited 

by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET). Typically these degree 

programs reside in the university’s College of Engineering. The computer engineering degree 

program resides in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, or the Department 

of Electrical and Computer Engineering, or it may be a stand alone Department of Computer 

Engineering. In some cases, such as, MIT and University of California at Berkeley, these 

degrees are offered in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science. 

Typically there is considerable overlap in the computer science and the computer engineering 

degree programs. The major difference between the two accredited degree programs is that 

an engineering design component is required in the accredited computer engineering degree 

program. 

Information science degree programs are tailored to prepare students for careers in the 

application of computers in business. Therefore these degree programs typically reside in 

business colleges and are not accredited by ABET. Although there are a few ABET accredited 

programs offered in engineering colleges. In addition to computer science courses in 

programming, computer organization and operation, computer networks, databases, these 

degree programs require courses in business and management, and fewer courses are 

required in mathematics and the sciences than in computer science and engineering degree 

programs

Specialty Areas

Most computer scientists are further classified by areas of focus. The following is a list of 

several major specialty areas within computer science: 

• Algorithms and Theory 
• Artificial Intelligence 
• Architecture, Parallel Computing and Systems 
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology 
• Database and Information Systems 
• Graphics, Visualization and the Human Computer Interface 
• Systems and Networking 
• Programming Languages, Formal Systems, and Software Engineering 
• Scientific Computing 

Algorithms and Theory 

Research in this area focuses on the design and analysis of algorithms and data structures for 

problems arising in several areas of computer science, including automatic software 

verification, computational geometry, data mining, and machine learning

Artificial Intelligence 

This specialty area focuses on a broad range of topics that include knowledge representation, 

learning, vision, reasoning, robotics, information systems, and planning. Application areas 

include molecular biology, manufacturing, control theory, and scheduling. 

Architecture, Parallel Computing and Systems 

Those focusing on the specialty area of architecture develop hardware designs, programming 

languages, and their compilers for next-generation computers and computing 

components. The specialty area of parallel computing area focuses on projects of varying size 

and investigates the software aspects of computation on computers composed of multiple 

processors.

Bioinformatics and Computational Biology 

Research in this area includes developing efficient and scalable algorithms for biomolecular 

simulation and applying data mining, statistical machine learning, natural language processing, 

and information retrieval to analyze and mine all kinds of biological data, including DNA 

sequences, protein sequences and structures, microarray data, and biology literature, for the 

purpose of facilitating biology discovery

Database and Information Systems 

Individuals working in this area would conduct fundamental and cutting-edge research in 

databases, data mining, web mining, information retrieval, and natural language processing. 

Current areas of focus might include data integration, exploring and integrating the "Deep 

Web;" schema matching; security; mining data streams and sequential and semi-structured 

data; operating systems support for storage systems; text retrieval and mining; bio-informatics; 

database support for high performance computing; and top-k query processing

Graphics, Visualization and the Human Computer Interface 

Graphics and visualization research includes modeling and animation of natural phenomena, 

computational topology, graphics hardware utilization, image based rendering, implicit 

surfaces, mesh processing and simplification, procedural modeling and texturing, shape 

modeling, surface parameterization, and visibility processing. Human-Computer Interface 

research involves user interface tools that better support early design tasks, systems and 

environments that help users maintain information awareness, tools for multimedia authoring 

and design, interfaces that foster social interaction, and, more generally, human-computer 

interaction.

Systems and Networking 

Networking and distributed systems group research includes a broad range of topics that 

include mobile systems, wireless protocols, ad-hoc networks, Quality of Service management, 

multimedia networking, peer-to-peer networking, routing, network simulations, active queue 

management, and sensor networks. 

Operating system research focuses on distributed resource management, management of 

ubiquitous computing environments, reflective middleware, middleware "meta-operating 

systems," object-oriented operating system design, user interfaces that allow single users to 

interact with multi-computers, peer-to-peer operating system services, and context-sensitive 

distributed file systems, power management for data centers, file/storage systems, autonomic 

computing, system support for software robustness, and system support for databases. 

Security research includes dynamic security architectures; security for active networks; 

privacy, authentication, authorization, access control, and trust in ubiquitous computing 

environments that have mobile users; authentication in sensor networks; specification and "Computer Science Overview" 

Prepared as part of the Sloan Career Cornerstone Center (www.careercornerstone.org) 

Note: Some resources in this section are provided by the US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. 

validation of security access control policies; simulation of network security problems and 

solutions including denial of service; and next generation phone security. Real-time and 

embedded systems research areas include open real-time systems QoS driven real-time 

scheduling and communication protocols, integrated design of controllers and real-time 

schedulers, the integration between real-time, fault tolerant and security protocols, and robust 

dynamic real-time architecture for networked devices and smart spaces.

Programming Languages, Formal Systems, and Software Engineering 

Those working in this specialty area study the design and implementation of computer 

languages, with the goal of improving both programmer productivity and program quality. The 

topics of study range from abstract theories of computer languages to practical questions 

about the use and implementation of high-level languages.

Scientific Computing 

Individuals working in the specialty area of scientific computing conduct research on the 

development and analysis of numerical techniques for approximating mathematical models of 

physical systems and on algorithms for solving the resulting equations on high performance 

computer systems. Specific scientific and engineering applications considered include 

biological molecular dynamics, materials science, semiconductor simulation, astrophysics, and 

the design of solid propellant rockets. 

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Education Required to Be a Computer Engineer

A computer engineer may work on any aspect of computer systems engineering, from hardware to software. Computer engineers must have a minimum of a bachelor's degree and some internship experience to get a full-time job in the industry.

Computer Engineer Career Overview

Computer engineers may work with software, hardware or applications and system development. They work to fulfill user needs based on usability, function and logic. Job duties include conceptualizing and designing new systems based on the needs of the end user, testing and troubleshooting various aspects of computer systems, including hardware, software programs and networking systems. Computer engineers may also be involved in the development of software, particularly from a hardware support and feasibility consulting position.

Required Education for Computer Engineers

A high school diploma or a GED equivalent is required to become a computer engineer. High school classes should focus on computer science, computer languages, mathematics and statistics. Prospective computer engineers may either opt to go directly for a bachelor's degree or complete an associate's degree as an intermediate step within the education required of a computer engineer. Many community, technical and vocational colleges offer programs in computer science, computer engineering and computer programming within their technology or information technology departments.

Generally, a bachelor's degree is the minimum education required of a computer engineer. Most employers require students to hold a bachelor's degree in computer science, computer programming, computer engineering, computer information systems, electrical engineering or similar computer-related fields. Employers have a strong preference for graduates with computer programming skills and a familiarity with a range of programming languages.

Taking an internship under the supervision of an experienced computer engineering professional is the best way to learn the skills and technical applications needed to be a computer engineer. Many internship programs may be available for college credit in any given major. Internships offer hands-on experience to otherwise inexperienced amateurs in the field. Most employers will not hire a computer engineer who does not have some relevant experience.

Professional certification for computer engineers is offered through the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Certification serves as a boost for those looking to accelerate their career in the field of computer engineering. A bachelor's degree in addition to work experience is required to apply for the exam; a passing score on the written exam qualifies an individual as a Certified Software Development Professional (CSDP).

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